The western extension of the Himalayas known as the Hindu Kush may appear to be a barrier to travel. However, their high and seemingly impenetrable passes were eventually conquered by invaders from Central Asia, who were responsible for introducing Indo-European languages to the region. In later centuries invaders such as Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, and Timur (Tamerlane) came through on the way to India’s northern plains. The passes remained militarily significant until the second half of the 20th century, but today they are of greater interest to archaeologists.

Among the Pashai people of Afghanistan a strong tradition of sung poetry predominates, though some instrumental music is also performed. For example, the pairing of a type of oboe called the zurna with the dûl (a double-headed drum), can be heard during wedding ceremonies and at men’s dances. The zurna is a cone made of wood with seven finger holes plus a thumb hole. It is played with a technique of continuous breathing that requires the musician to blow steadily into the instrument while inhaling through the nose, preventing any break in the delivery of sound. To energize the male dancers, who respond to the rhythm with hand claps and exclamatory shouts of encouragement, the drumming increases in tempo as the piece progresses.